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Preuss TM, Wise SP (2022) Evolution of prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology. 47:1:3-19. doi: 10.1038/s41386-021-01076-5.
ABSTRACT
Subdivisions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) evolved at different times. Agranular parts of the PFC emerged in early mammals, and
rodents, primates, and other modern mammals share them by inheritance. These are limbic areas and include the agranular orbital
cortex and agranular medial frontal cortex (areas 24, 32, and 25). Rodent research provides valuable insights into the structure,
functions, and development of these shared areas, but it contributes less to parts of the PFC that are specific to primates, namely,
the granular, isocortical PFC that dominates the frontal lobe in humans. The first granular PFC areas evolved either in early primates
or in the last common ancestor of primates and tree shrews. Additional granular PFC areas emerged in the primate stem lineage, as
represented by modern strepsirrhines. Other granular PFC areas evolved in simians, the group that includes apes, humans, and
monkeys. In general, PFC accreted new areas along a roughly posterior to anterior trajectory during primate evolution. A major
expansion of the granular PFC occurred in humans in concert with other association areas, with modifications of corticocortical
connectivity and gene expression, although current evidence does not support the addition of a large number of new, humanspecific
PFC areas.
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